Indonesia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Republic of
Indonesia
Republik
Indonesia
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Motto: "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" (Old Javanese)
"Unity in Diversity" National ideology: Pancasila[1][2] |
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Location of Indonesia (dark green) in ASEAN (light green) and Asia.
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Capital
and largest city |
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Official
languages
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Religion
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Legislature
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17 August 1945 (de jure)
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27 December 1949 (from Netherlands)
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1,904,569 km2 (15th)
735,358 sq mi |
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4.85
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2014 estimate
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252,164,800[3]
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2011 census
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Density
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124.66/km2 (84th)
322.87/sq mi |
2014 estimate
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Total
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Per capita
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GDP (nominal)
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2014 estimate
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Total
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Per capita
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Gini (2010)
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35.6[5]
medium |
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HDI (2013)
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Currency
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Indonesian rupiah (Rp)
(IDR)
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Time zone
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Drives on
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left
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0.684
Indonesia (
i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ in-də-nee-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ in-doh-nee-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian:Republik Indonesia Indonesian
pronunciation: [rɛpublik ɪndonesia]),
is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is
i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ in-də-nee-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ in-doh-nee-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian:Republik Indonesia Indonesian
pronunciation: [rɛpublik ɪndonesia]),
is a sovereign state in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is
anarchipelago comprising thousands of
islands.[7] It encompasses 34 provinces.
Two
provinces were Special
Administrative Regions (one for
being governed by pre-colonial monarchy and another one for
using the Sharia Law), with an
estimated population of over 252 million people, making it the world's
fourth most
populous country. Indonesia's republican form of government
comprises an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city
is Jakarta. The country shares land borders
with Papua New Guinea, East Timor,
the Philippines, Australia, Palau,
and the Indian territory of theAndaman and
Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and
a member of the G-20 major economies.
TheIndonesian economy is
the world's 17th largest
by nominal GDP.
The Indonesian archipelago has
been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then laterMajapahit traded with China and India.
Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political
models from the earlycenturies CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has
been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought the now-dominant Islam,
while European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize
trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half
centuries ofDutch colonialism,
Indonesia secured its
independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since
been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, mass
slaughter, corruption,
separatism, a democratization process,
and periods of rapid economic change.
Indonesia consists of hundreds of
distinct native ethnic and linguistic groups.
The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese. A shared identity has developed,
defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a
majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against
it. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika"("Unity
in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"),
articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Despite its large population
and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that
support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural
resources, yet poverty remains widespread.[8][9]
Contents
[hide]
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14 Notes
Etymology
Further
information: Names of Indonesia
The name Indonesia derives
from the Greek words Indós and nèsos,
which means "island".[10] The name dates to the 18th
century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.[11] In 1850, George Windsor Earl,
an English ethnologist, proposed
the
termsIndunesians —
and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of
the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".[12] In the same publication, a
student of Earl's, James Richardson
Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian
Archipelago.[13][14]However, Dutch academics writing in
East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead,
they used the terms Malay Archipelago (Maleische Archipel);
the Netherlands East
Indies (Nederlandsch
Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de
Oost); andInsulinde.[15]
After 1900, the name Indonesia became
more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist
groups adopted it for political expression.[15] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin,
popularized the name through his bookIndonesien oder die Inseln des
Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the
name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki
Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with
the name Indonesisch Pers-bureauin 1913.[11]
History
Main article: History of Indonesia
A Borobudur ship carved
onBorobudur, c. 800 CE. Indonesian
outrigger boats may have made trade voyages to the east coast of Africa as
early as the 1st century CE.[16]
Fossils and the remains of tools
show that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited byHomo erectus, popularly known as "Java Man", between 1.5 million years ago
and as recently as 35,000 years ago.[17][18][19] Homo sapiens reached the region by
around 45,000 years ago.[20] In 2011 evidence was uncovered
in neighbouring East Timor showing
that 42,000 years ago these early settlers were catching and consuming large
numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna,[21] and that they had the
technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands.
Austronesian peoples,
who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia
from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and as they spread
through the archipelago, pushed the indigenous Melanesian peoples to the far eastern
regions.[22] Ideal agricultural conditions,
and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as
early as the 8th century BCE,[23] allowed villages, towns, and
small kingdoms to flourish by the 1st century CE. Indonesia's strategic
sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including
links with Indian kingdoms and China, which were established several centuries
BCE.[24] Trade has since fundamentally
shaped Indonesian history.[25][26]
The nutmeg plant is native to
Indonesia's Banda Islands.
Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European
colonial powers to Indonesia.
Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism
arrived in Indonesia in the 4th and 5th century, as trade with India
intensified under the south Indian Pallava dynasty.[27]
From the 7th century, the
powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a
result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.[28][29] Between the 8th and 10th
centuries, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in
inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern
Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much
of Indonesia.[30]
Although Muslim traders first
traveled through Southeast Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest
evidence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the
13th century in northern Sumatra.[31] Other Indonesian areas
gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra
by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed
with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant
form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[32] The first
regular contact between Europeans and the peoples of Indonesiabegan
in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão,
sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves,
and cubeb pepper in Maluku.[33] Dutch and British traders
followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch
East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European
power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the
government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized
colony.[34]
For most of the colonial period,
Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds;
only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become
Indonesia's present boundaries.[35] Japanese
occupation during the Second World War ended Dutch rule[36][37] and encouraged the previously
suppressed Indonesian independence movement.[38] A later UN report stated that
four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation.[39] Two days after the surrender
of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential
nationalist leader, declared independence and was appointedPresident.[40][41][42] The Netherlands tried to
reestablish their rule, and the resulting conflict ended
in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch
formally recognized Indonesian independence[41][43] with the exception of the Dutch territory
of West New Guinea, which was incorporated into Indonesia following
the 1962 New York Agreement,
and the UN-mandated Act of Free Choice of
1969[44] which was questionable and has
resulted in a longtime independence movement.[45]
Sukarno, Indonesia's founding President.
Sukarno moved Indonesia from
democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing
the opposing forces of themilitary and
the Communist Party
of Indonesia (PKI).[46] An attempted
coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who
led a violent
anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup
and effectively destroyed.[47][48][49] Around 500,000 people are estimated
to have been killed.[50][51] The head of the
military, General Suharto, outmaneuvered the politically
weakened Sukarno and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order
administration[52] was supported by the US
government,[53][54][55] and encouraged foreign direct
investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the
subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. However, the
authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and
suppression of political opposition.[36][56][57]
Indonesia was the country hardest
hit by the late 1990s
Asian financial crisis.[58] This led to popular protest
against the New Order which led toSuharto's resignation in May 1998.[59] In 1999, East Timor voted to
secede from Indonesia, after a
twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by
international condemnation of repression of the East Timorese.[60] Since Suharto's
resignation, a strengthening of
democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program,
and the first direct
presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability,
social unrest, corruption,
and terrorism slowed
progress; however, in the last five years the economy has performed strongly.
Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely
harmonious, sectarian discontent and violence have persisted.[61] A political settlement to an
armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in
2005.[62]
Government and politics
Main
articles: Politics of Indonesia and Elections in
Indonesia
A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta
Indonesia is a republic with a
presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central
government. Following theresignation
of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental
structures have undergone major reforms. Four amendments to the 1945 Constitution
of Indonesia[63] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.[64] The president of
Indonesia is the head of state and head of government, commander-in-chief of
the Indonesian
National Armed Forces, and the director of domestic governance,
policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of
ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The
2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected
the president and vice president.[65] The president may serve a
maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.[66]
The highest representative body
at national level is the People's
Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting
and amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing
broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the president.[67] The MPR comprises two houses;
the People's
Representative Council (DPR), with 560 members, and the Regional
Representative Council (DPD), with 132 members.[68] The DPR passes legislation and
monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year
terms by proportional
representation.[64] Reforms since 1998 have
markedly increased the DPR's role in national governance.[69] The DPD is a new chamber for
matters of regional management.[70]
Most civil disputes appear before
a State Court (Pengadilan Negeri); appeals are heard before the High Court
(Pengadilan Tinggi). The Supreme Court
(Mahkamah Agung) is the country's highest court, and hears
final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the
Commercial Court, which handles bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative
Court (Pengadilan Tata Negara) to hear administrative law cases against the
government; a Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) to hear disputes
concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political
parties, and the scope of authority of state institutions; and a Religious
Court (Pengadilan Agama) to deal with codified Sharia Law cases.[71]
Foreign relations and military
Main
articles: Foreign
relations of Indonesia and Indonesian
National Armed Forces
Former President of
Indonesia Susilo Bambang
Yudhoyono with Barack Obama, the President of
United States, in ceremony at the Istana Merdeka in Jakarta, 9 November
2010. Obama has become popular in Indonesia due to the years he spent in
Jakarta as a child.[72]
In contrast to Sukarno's
anti-imperialistic antipathy to
western powers and tensions
with Malaysia, Indonesia's
foreign relations since the Suharto "New Order" have
been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.[73] Indonesia maintains close
relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and
the East Asia Summit.[68] The nation restored relations
with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since
anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era.[71] Indonesia has been a member of
the United Nations since 1950,[74] and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC, now theOrganisation
of Islamic Cooperation).[68] Indonesia is signatory to
the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement,
the Cairns Group, and
the WTO,
and has historically been a member of OPEC,
although it withdrew in 2008 as it was no longer a net exporter of oil.
Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in
particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.[68]
The Indonesian Government has
worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major
bombings linked to militantIslamism and Al-Qaeda.[75] The deadliest bombing killed
202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort
town of Kuta in 2002.[76]The attacks, and subsequent travel
warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's tourism industry and
foreign investment prospects.[77]
Indonesia's armed forces (TNI)
include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes marines),
and Air Force (TNI–AU).[78] The army has about 400,000
active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in
2006, and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial
interests and foundations.[79] One of the reforms following
the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in
parliament; nevertheless, its political influence remains extensive.[80]
Separatist movements in the
provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent
allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides.[81][82] Following a sporadic
thirty-year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and
the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.[83] In Papua, there has been a
significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a
reported decline in the levels of violence andhuman
rights abuses, since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.[84]
Administrative divisions
Main
articles: Provinces of
Indonesia and Subdivisions of
Indonesia
Administratively, Indonesia
consists of 34 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has
its own legislature and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten)
and cities (kota),
which are further subdivided
into districts (kecamatan or distrik in
Papua and West Papua), and again into administrative villages (eitherdesa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari in
West Sumatra, or gampong in Aceh). Village is the lowest level
of government administration in Indonesia. Furthermore, a village is divided
into several community groups (Rukun-Warga (RW)) which are further divided into
neighbourhood groups (Rukun-Tetangga (RT)). In Java the desa (village)
is divided further into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets),
these units are the same as Rukun-Warga. Following the implementation of
regional autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the
key administrative units, responsible for providing most government services.
The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily
life and handles matters of a village or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala
desa (village chief).
The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have
greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central
government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has
the right to create certain elements of an independent legal system; in 2003,
it instituted a form of Sharia Law(Islamic law).[85] Yogyakarta was granted the
status of Special Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting
Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution and its willingness to
join Indonesia as a republic.[86] Papua, formerly known as Irian
Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001 and was split into Papua and West Papua in
February 2003.[87][88] Jakarta is the country's
special capital region.
Indonesian provinces and their
capitals, listed by region
Indonesian name is in parentheses
if different from English.
* indicates provinces with Special Status
* indicates provinces with Special Status
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Aceh (Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam) * – Banda Aceh
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North Sumatra (Sumatera Utara) – Medan
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West Sumatra (Sumatera Barat) – Padang
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Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau) – Tanjung Pinang
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Jambi – Jambi (city)
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South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan) – Palembang
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Bangka-Belitung (Kepulauan
Bangka-Belitung) – Pangkal Pinang
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Special Capital Region of Jakarta* (Daerah
Khusus Ibu Kota Jakarta) – Jakarta
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Central Java (Jawa Tengah) – Semarang
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Yogyakarta
Special Region* (Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta) – Yogyakarta (city)
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West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa
Tenggara Barat) – Mataram
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East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa
Tenggara Timur) – Kupang
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West Kalimantan (Kalimantan
Barat) – Pontianak
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Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan
Tengah) – Palangkaraya
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South Kalimantan (Kalimantan
Selatan) – Banjarmasin
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East Kalimantan (Kalimantan
Timur) – Samarinda
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North Kalimantan (Kalimantan
Utara) – Tanjung Selor
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North Sulawesi (Sulawesi
Utara) – Manado
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Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi
Tengah) – Palu
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West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat) – Mamuju
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South Sulawesi (Sulawesi
Selatan) – Makassar
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South East Sulawesi (Sulawesi
Tenggara) – Kendari
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North Maluku (Maluku Utara) – Sofifi
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West Papua* (Papua
Barat) – Manokwari
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Geography
Main article: Geography of
Indonesia
Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's
seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.
Indonesia lies between
latitudes 11°S and 6°N, and
longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It
consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.[89] These are scattered over both
sides of the equator. The largest are Java, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), New Guinea
(shared with Papua New Guinea), and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders
with Malaysia on Borneo, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East
Timor on the island of Timor. Indonesia shares
maritime borders across narrow straits with Singapore, Malaysia, the
Philippines, and Palau to the north, and with Australia to the south. The
capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by
Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.[90]
At 1,919,440 square
kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 15th-largest country in terms of land
area and world's 7th-largest country in terms of combined
sea and land area.[91] Its average population density
is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the
world,[92] although Java, the world's
most populous island,[93] has a population density of
940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884
metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya in
Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake,
with an area of 1,145 square kilometers (442 sq mi). The
country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam andBarito; such rivers are communication and transport links
between the island's river settlements.[94]
Indonesia's location on the edges
of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of
numerous volcanoes and
frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,[95] including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating
eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago,
was one of the largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe.
Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an estimated
167,736 in northern Sumatra,[96] and the Yogyakarta
earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to
the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high
population densities of Java and Bali.[97]
Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a
tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in
the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70.1–125.0 inches), and up to
6,100 millimeters (240 inches) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas –
particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and
Papua – receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging
about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily
temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).[98]
Biota and environment
Main
articles: Fauna of Indonesia, Flora of Indonesia and Environment of
Indonesia
The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan,
a great ape endemic to
Indonesia.
Indonesia's size, tropical
climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level
of biodiversity (after Brazil),[99] and its flora and fauna is a
mixture of Asian and Australasian species.[100] The islands of the Sunda Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and
Bali) were once linked to the Asian mainland, and have a wealth of Asian fauna.
Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan,elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as
Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover
approximately 60% of the country.[101] In Sumatra and Kalimantan,
these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of the smaller,
and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation
and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku – having been long
separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora
and fauna.[102] Papua was part of the
Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely
related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species.[103]
Indonesia is second only to
Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of
bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.[104] Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers
(50,000 miles) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to
the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and
coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries,mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and
small island ecosystems.[10] Indonesia is one of Coral Triangle countries with the world's
greatest diversity of coral reef fish with more than 1,650
species in eastern Indonesia only.[105] The British naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line
between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species.[106] Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north–south
along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along
the deep Lombok Strait,
between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the
flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly
Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago,
Wallace described numerous species unique to the area.[107] The region of islands between
his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[106]
Indonesia's high population and
rapid industrialization present serious environmental
issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty
levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[108] Issues include large-scale
deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over
parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine
resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization
and economic development,
including air pollution, traffic congestion,
garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[108] Deforestation and the
destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the world's third largest emitter of
greenhouse gases.[109] Habitat destruction threatens
the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation
Union (IUCN) as threatened,
and 15 identified as critically endangered, including Bali Starling,[110] Sumatran Orangutan,[111] and Javan Rhinoceros.[110] Much of Indonesia's
deforestation is caused by forest clearing for the palm oil Industry, which has
cleared 18 million hectares of forest for palm oil expansion. Palm oil
expansion requires land reallocation as well as changes to the local and
natural ecosystems. Palm oil expansion can generate wealth for local
communities, if done right. If done wrong, it can degrade ecosystems and cause
social conflicts.[112]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Indonesia
Using water buffalo to
plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture had been the country's largest employer
for centuries.
Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private
sector and government play significant roles.[113] The country is the largest
economy in Southeast Asia and a member of the G-20 major economies.[114] Indonesia's estimated gross domestic
product (nominal), as of 2012 was US$928.274 billion with estimated
nominal per capita GDP was
US$3,797, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,943 (international dollars).[115] The gross domestic product
(GDP) is about $1 trillion[4] and the debt ratio to the GDP
is 26%.[116] According toWorld Bank affiliated report based on 2011
data, the Indonesian economy was the world's 10th largest
by nominal GDP (PPP based), with the country contributing 2.3 percent of global
economic output.[117][118] The industry sector is the economy's largest
and accounts for 46.4% of GDP (2012), this is followed by services (38.6%) and
agriculture (14.4%). However, since 2012, the service sector has employed more people
than other sectors, accounting for 48.9% of the total labor force, this has
been followed by agriculture (38.6%) and industry (22.2%).[119] Agriculture, however, had
been the country's largest employer for centuries.[120][121]
According to World Trade
Organization data, Indonesia was the 27th biggest exporting
country in the world in 2010, moving up three places from a year before.[122] Indonesia's main export
markets (2009) are Japan (17.28%), Singapore (11.29%), the United States(10.81%), and China (7.62%). The
major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Singapore (24.96%), China (12.52%),
and Japan (8.92%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues
of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has
extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and
gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals,
fuels, and foodstuffs, and the country's major export commodities include oil
and gas, electrical appliances, plywood, rubber, and textiles.[89]
Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and the
country's largest commercial center.
The tourism sector contributes
to around US$9 billion of foreign exchange in 2012, and ranked as the 4th
largest among goods and services export sectors.[123] Singapore, Malaysia, Australia,
China and Japan are the top five source of visitors to Indonesia.
In the 1960s the economy
deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and
inexperienced government, and economic nationalism, which resulted in severe
poverty and hunger. By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the
economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues,
crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and
negligibleinvestment. Following
President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration
brought a degree of discipline to economic policy
that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and
investment. (See Berkeley Mafia).
Indonesia was until recently Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC, and the
1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to
sustained high economic growth rates, averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981.[124]Following further reforms in the
late 1980s,[125] foreign investment flowed
into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing
sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an
average of over 7%.[126][127]
Indonesia was the country hardest
hit by the Asian financial
crisis of 1997–98. During the crisis there were sudden and
large capital outflows leading the rupiah to go into free fall. Against the US
dollar the rupiah dropped from about Rp 2,600 in
late 1997 to a low point of around Rp 17,000 some months later and the economy
shrank by a remarkable 13.7%. These developments led to widespread economic
distress across the economy and contributed to the political crisis of 1998
which saw Suharto resign as president.[128]The rupiah later stabilised in the
Rp. 8,000 range[129] and economic growth returned
to 4% per year by 2000.[130] However, the currency still
fluctuates, dropping below Rp 11,000 per dollar in September 2013. In addition,
corruption has been a persistent problem. Transparency International, for
example, has since ranked Indonesia below 100 in itsCorruption
Perceptions Index.[131][132] Since 2007, however, with the
improvement in banking sector and domestic consumption, national economic
growth has accelerated to over 6% annually[133][134][135] and this helped the country
weather the 2008–2009 global recession.[136] The Indonesian economy
performed strongly during the Global Financial
Crisis and in 2012 its GDP grew by over 6%.[137] The country regained its
investment grade rating in late 2011 after losing it in the 1997.[138] However, as of 2012, an
estimated 11.7% of the population lived below the poverty line and the official
open unemployment rate was 6.1%.[89]
Demographics
Main
articles: Demographics of
Indonesia and List
of endangered languages in Indonesia
Balinese children.
There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia.
According to the 2010 national
census, the population of
Indonesia is 237.6 million,[139] with high population growth
at 1.9%.[140] 58% of the population lives
in Java,[139] the world's most populous
island.[93] In 1961 the first
post-colonial census gave a total population of 97 million.[141] Population is expected to
grow to around 269 million by 2020 and 321 million by 2050.[142]
Ethnicity
Main
articles: Ethnic groups in
Indonesia and Languages of
Indonesia
There are around 300 distinct
native ethnic groups in Indonesia, and 742 different languages and dialects.[143][144] Most Indonesians are
descended from Austronesian-speaking
peoples whose languages can be traced to Proto-Austronesian (PAn), which
possibly originated in Taiwan. Another major
grouping are Melanesians, who inhabit
eastern Indonesia.[22][90][145] The largest ethnic group is
the Javanese, who
comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally dominant.[146] The Sundanese, ethnic Malays,
and Madurese are
the largest non-Javanese groups.[147] A sense of Indonesian nationhood
exists alongside strong regional identities.[148] Social, religious and ethnic
tensions have triggered horrendous violence.[149][150][151] Chinese Indonesians are
an influential ethnic minority comprising 3–4% of the population.[152] Much of the country's
privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-Indonesian-controlled.[153][154] Chinese businesses in
Indonesia are part of the larger bamboo network, a network of overseas Chinese businesses operating in
the markets of Southeast Asia that share common family and cultural ties.[155] This has contributed to
considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.[156][157][158]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Indonesia
The Istiqlal Mosque in
Central Jakarta. Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation.
While religious freedom is
stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,[159] the government officially
recognizes only six religions: Islam,Protestantism, Roman
Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism,
and Confucianism.[160] Indonesia is the world's most
populous Muslim-majority nation,
at 87.2% in 2010, with the majority
being Sunni (99%).[161][162] The Shias and Ahmadis respectively constitute 0.5% and
0.2% of the Muslim population.[163] On 21 May 2011 the
Indonesian Sunni-Shia Council
(MUHSIN) was established. The council aims to hold gatherings, dialogues and
social activities. It was an answer to violence committed in the name of
religion.[164] Seven percent of the
population was Christian, 1.7% Hindu, and 0.9% Buddhist or other. Most
ethnic Chinese.[166] Though now minority
religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain defining influences inIndonesian culture. Islam was
first adopted by Indonesians in
northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through the
influence of traders, and became the country's dominant
religion by the 16th century.[167] Roman Catholicism was brought to
Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,[168][169] and the Protestant
denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the
country's colonial period.[170][171][172] A large proportion of
Indonesians—such as the Javanese abangan, BalineseHindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a
Education
Education in
Indonesia is compulsory for twelve years.[174][175] Parents can choose between
state-run, non sectarian public schools supervised by the Department of National
Education (Depdiknas) or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic)
schools supervised and financed by the Department of Religious Affairs.[176] The enrolment rate is 94% for
primary education (2011), 75% for secondary education, and 27% for tertiary
education. The literacy rate is 93% (2011).[177]
Cities and towns
·
v
·
t
·
e
Largest cities or towns of IndonesiaStatistics Indonesia (2010)[178]
|
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1
|
9,588,198
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11
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1,290,322
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2
|
2,765,487
|
12
|
950,334
|
||||||
3
|
2,394,873
|
13
|
944,285
|
||||||
4
|
2,334,871
|
14
|
897,767
|
||||||
5
|
2,097,610
|
15
|
881,801
|
||||||
6
|
1,798,601
|
16
|
833,562
|
||||||
7
|
1,738,570
|
17
|
820,243
|
||||||
8
|
1,555,984
|
18
|
788,589
|
||||||
9
|
1,455,284
|
19
|
727,500
|
||||||
10
|
1,338,663
|
20
|
635,464
|
||||||
Language
More than 700 living languages are spoken in Indonesia.[179] Most belong to the Austronesian
language family, with a few Papuan languages also spoken. The
official language isIndonesian (locally
known as Bahasa Indonesia), a variant of Malay,[180] which was used in the
archipelago, — borrowing heavily from local languages of Indonesia such as
Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, etc. The Indonesian language is primarily
used in commerce, administration, education and the media, but most
Indonesians speak other languages,
such as Javanese, as
their first language.[179]
Indonesian language is based on
the prestige dialect of
Malay, that of the Johor-Riau Sultanate,
which for centuries had been the lingua franca of the archipelago,
standards of which are the official languages in Singapore, Malaysia and
Brunei. Indonesian is universally taught in schools, consequently it is spoken
by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national
media, education, and academia. It was promoted by Indonesian nationalists in
the 1920s, and declared the official language under the name Bahasa
Indonesia on the proclamation of independence in 1945. Most
Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred
local languages and dialects, often as theirfirst language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the
language of the largest ethnic group.[89] On the other hand, Papua has
over 270 indigenous Papuan andAustronesian
languages,[181] in a region of about 2.7
million people.
Sports
Main article: Sport in Indonesia
Sports in Indonesia are
generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with
illegal gambling.[182] The most popular sports are
badminton and football.Indonesian
players have won the Thomas Cup (the world team championship
of men's badminton) thirteen of the twenty-six times that it has been held
since 1949, as well as numerous Olympic medals since the sport gained full
Olympic status in 1992. Its women have won the Uber Cup, the female equivalent of the Thomas
Cup, twice, in 1994 and1996. Liga Indonesia is the country's premier
football club league. Traditional sports include sepak takraw, and bull racing in Madura.
In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held,
such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial
art.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Indonesia
Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) inWayang Purwa type, depicting fivePandava, from left to right: Bhima,Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, andSahadeva, Indonesia Museum, Jakarta.
Indonesia has about 300 ethnic
groups, each with cultural identities developed over centuries, and influenced
by Indian, Arabic, Chinese, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and
Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology,
as dowayang kulit (shadow puppet)
performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat, ulos and songket are created across Indonesia in
styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian
architecture have traditionally been Indian;
however, Chinese, Arab, and European
architectural influences have
been significant.
A selection of Indonesian food, including ikan bakar (roasted fish),ayam goreng (fried chicken), nasi
timbel (rice wrapped in banana leaf),sambal, fried tempeh and tofu,
andsayur asem.
Indonesian cuisine varies
by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian
precedents.[183] Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables.
Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish
and chicken are fundamental ingredients.[184]Indonesian traditional music
includes gamelan and keroncong. The Indonesian film industry'spopularity
peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in
Indonesia,[185] although it declined
significantly in the early 1990s.[186] Between 2000 and 2005, the
number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.[185]
The oldest evidence of writing in
Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions
dated to the 5th century. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature
include: Dutch author Multatuli, who
criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; SumatransMuhammad Yamin and Hamka,
who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;[187] and proletarian writerPramoedya Ananta Toer,
Indonesia's most famous novelist.[188][189] Many of Indonesia's peoples
have strongly rooted oral traditions,
which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.[190]
Media freedom
in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule,
during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled
domestic media, and restricted foreign media.[191] The TV market includes ten national
commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI.
Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters
supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008,[192] Internet usage was estimated
at 12.5% in September 2009.[193] More than 30 million cell
phones are sold in Indonesia each year, and 27% of them are local brands.[194]
See also
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·
ASEAN
Notes
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36.
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125.
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growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988. A range of
economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s. Reforms included a managed
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146.
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p. 131.ISBN 0-415-29737-0.
147.
Jump up^ Small but significant
populations of ethnic Chinese,
Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
149.
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(including the official Transmigrasi program)
are a cause of violence including the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a
local Dayak community
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152.
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than 1% of the country's 210 million inhabitants described themselves as ethnic
Chinese. Many sociologists regard this as a serious underestimate: they believe
that somewhere between six million and seven million people of Chinese descent
are now living in Indonesia. The Republic of China (Taiwan)'s Overseas
Compatriot Affairs Commission gives a figure of 7,776,000, including 207,000 of
Taiwan origin; see Statistical Yearbook, Taipai: Overseas Compatriot Affairs
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155.
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Retrieved 20 November 2011. Religion is belief in Almighty God
that must be possessed by every human being. Religion can be divided into
Muslim, Christian, Catholic, Hindu, Buddhist, Hu Khong Chu, and Other
Religion. Muslim 207176162 (87.18%), Christian 16528513 (6.96), Catholic
6907873 (2.91), Hindu 4012116 (1.69), Buddhist 1703254 (0.72), Khong Hu Chu
117091 (0.05), Other 299617 (0.13), Not Stated 139582 (0.06), Not Asked 757118
(0.32), Total 237641326
163.
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million Shia Muslims and 400,000 Ahmadi Muslims in the country which
approximates to 0.5% and 0.2% of the total Muslim population. See:
·
Reza, Imam. "Shia Muslims Around the World".
Retrieved 2009-06-11. approximately 400,000 persons who subscribe to
the Ahmadiyya
·
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184.
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flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept
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References
·
Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies.
Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6.
·
Ricklefs, M. C. (1991). A History of Modern
Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-6.
·
Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting:
Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2.
·
Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia:
Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
·
Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern
Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6.
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